Bibliography 1991- 2000 - Abstracts

The Industry
Yarborough, D.E. 2004. Factors contributing to the increase in productivity in the wild blueberry industry. Small Fruits Review. 3 (1/2) : 33-43. In Proceedings of the Ninth North American Blueberry Research and Extension Workers Conference, Halifax, NS, 18-21 Aug.2002.

An additional 2 million kg, approximately, of wild blueberries were harvested each year within a 20 year period in the industry in Atlantic Canada and Maine, although few additional acres were grown. Field management techniques, including the use of herbicides, fertilizers, pollinating bees, irrigation and mechanical harvesting, were the main causes of the productivity increase.

Physiology and Morphology
Eaton, L.J.; K.R. Sanderson; and J. Hoyle. 2004. Effects of salt deposition from salt water spray on lowbush blueberry shoots. Proceedings of the Ninth North American Blueberry Research and Extension Workers Conference. Small Fruits Review 3 (1/2) : 95-103. In Proceedings of the Ninth North American Blueberry Research and Extension Workers Conference, Halifax, NS, 18-21 Aug.2002.

Commercial lowbush blueberry fields on the Gulf of St. Lawrence coastline in PEI and on the Bay of Fundy coastline in Nova Scotia were tested to determine the effects of salt deposited on shoots from salt water spray. Randomly selected plants were covered with a 4 mil plastic film. Unprotected plants were found to have lower fruit yields and blossoms and additional dead buds, and therefore salt spray was found to cause significant damage to fields. These damages varied by location, weather and snow cover. The authors recommend protecting plants from salt spray by planting a tree line and erecting snow fences.

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Chemistry and Bacteriology
Kalt, W.; J.E. McDonald; R.D. Ricker; X.Lu. 1999. Anthocyanin content and profile within and among blueberry species. Can. J. Plant Sci. 79 (4) : 617-623.

Comparison of anthocyanins of four Vaccinium species and genotypes found that anthocyanin content varied between the species and genotypes. Bilberry (V. myrtillus L.) had the highest content. Wild highbush blueberries contained 60% of the amount found in bilberries, whereas commercial lowbush blueberry clonal mixtures and wild velvet leaf blueberries (V. myrtilloides L.) contained 43% and commercial highbush varieties (V. corymbosum L.) contained 30% of the bilberry amount. However, it was concluded that the variation in anthocyanin content may not significantly affect variation in their relative antioxidant capacity.

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Special Cultural Practices
Eaton, L.J.; R.W. Glen; and J.D. Wyllie. 2004. Efficient mowing for pruning wild blueberry fields. Small Fruits Review 3. (1/2) : 123-131. In Proceedings of the Ninth North American Blueberry Research and Extension Workers Conference, Halifax, NS, 18-21 Aug. 2002.

Three mowing heights and two types of mowers were tested on commercial wild blueberry fields in Nova Scotia to determine if a higher mowing height than previously recommended would be successful and therefore cut costs and plant, soil and equipment damage associated with lower mowing heights. A flail mower was used at low, medium and high heights and a rotary mower was used at a high height. There was little difference in growth, buds and yield between the varying heights, but the rotary mower caused branching and less yield. It is also noted there was no difference between fall and spring pruning. Therefore Eaton, Glen and Wyllie recommend that producers use a flail mower set at medium or high heights (2-3 in).

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Commercial Processing
Jackson, E. D.; K.A. Sanford; R.A. Lawrence; K.B. McRae; and R. Stark. 1999. Lowbush blueberry quality changes in response to prepacking delays and holding temperatures. Postharvest Biology and Technology. 15 (2) : 117-126.

Varying prepacking temperatures, delay times and subsequent storage times were evaluated separately and in combination to determine ideal handling of fresh wild lowbush blueberries (Vaccinium angustifolium Ait. and V. myrtilloides Michx.). Changes in bloom, firmness, moisture, pH, microbal counts, weight loss, soluble solids, titratable acids and percentage of marketable berries were noted. Reducing impact damage and limiting prepacking delays to under 24 hours at 12-26°C, and storage at 0°C was found to produce the highest quality berry, with less splitting and more firmness and marketability. The authors suggest it may be more advantageous to minimize delays rather than use pre-cooling methods because cooling before packing resulted in condensation problems. If it is not possible to minimize delays, cooling to 5°C before packaging results in less softening and splitting.

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Leyte, J.C.; and C.F. Forney. 1999. Optimizing flat design for forced-air cooling of blueberries packaged in plastic clamshells. HortTechnology. 9 (2) : 202-205.

Perhiperal and central opening air pathways in the top, bottom, corners and center line of packages were tested during forced-air cooling and air pressure rates, drop and uniformities of cooling were noted. A larger opening area and bottom and top and bottom openings were found to increase the efficiency of cooling.

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Food Products
Zhang, H.L.; A.A. Bushway; T. Work; M.E. Camire; and R. Work. 1995. Prevention of anthocyanin leakage of individual quick frozen (IQF) lowbush blueberries in bakery products. Page 66 In IFT Annual Meeting 1995.

Samples of IQF blueberries were coated in edible films Colloid 911, Ticalose® CMC 2500 Standard Powder, and Pre-hydrated® Ticalose® CMC 2500 Powder, Alanate 110, and Alanate 310 and, after drying, placed in water or uncooked muffin batter. The films, most notably the Colloid 911, produced a lower exudation rate and a greater white to black ratio. The authors also suggest further research into the use of films for usage in IQF wild lowbush blueberries.

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Kalt, W.; J. E McDonald; and H. Donner. 2000. Anthocyanins, phenolics, and antioxidant capacity of processed lowbush blueberry products. J. Food Sci. 65 (3) : 390-393.

The effect of processing lowbush blueberries for use in food products on antioxidant properties within blueberries was tested. Through examining the effects of temperature, pH and oxygenation on anthocyanins and phenolics found in blueberries extracted from food products, the authors found less processed berries had higher antioxidant capacities.

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Soil Fertility and Improvement
Warman, P.R.: C.J. Murphy; J.C. Burnham; and L.J. Eaton. 2004. Soil and plant response to MSW compost applications on lowbush blueberry fields in 2000 and 2001. Small Fruits Review 3. (1/2) : 19-31. In Proceedings of the Ninth North American Blueberry Research and Extension Workers Conference, Halifax, NS, 18-21 Aug. 2002.

Three lowbush blueberry fields in Nova Scotia, one containing sandy loam soil, and the others, gravely loamy sands, were treated with two fertilizers and three different levels of municipal solid waste (MSW) to determine if MSW compost is a fertilizer option for lowbush blueberries. Changes in soil fertility, yield, plant nutrients and trace metal content in berries and berry leaves were studied. Leaf tissue and extractable soil nutrients from samples treated with medium and high MSW compost levels were found to have increased amounts of N and K, and K, respectively, and it is predicted plant nutrition and fruit yield, over an extended time period, will increase. However, for the short term period of this study (one production cycle), fruit yield was similar for all treatments. The difference between soils at the two different locations also affected these results. The authors conclude that although MSW compost seems to provide essential nutrients equivalent to chemical fertilizers, a long-term study is needed to confirm that MSW compost is a successful fertilizer for lowbush blueberries, and will continue this study for an additional production cycle.

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Fertilizer Research
Sanderson, K.R.; and L.J. Eaton. 2004. Gypsum – an alternative to chemical fertilizers in lowbush blueberry production. Small Fruits Review 3. (1/2) : 57-71. In Proceedings of the Ninth North American Blueberry Research and Extension Workers Conference.

Lowbush blueberries in PEI and NS fields were treated with chemical fertilizer, gypsum, and a combination of the same chemical fertilizer and gypsum for two cropping seasons, to determine if gypsum, an organic fertilizer, is suitable for use in lowbush blueberry production. Tissue samples contained higher levels of N, P, K, Ca, Mn and S with the combination of chemical fertilizer and gypsum, and higher levels of K, Ca, Mn and S with the gypsum application. Therefore gypsum is recommended as means to improve plant health because it was found to cause more efficient nutrient absorption. During the first season of study, increased stem length, live and total buds, and total blossoms were found in fields treated with gypsum and fertilizer. Despite these findings, there was little difference in marketable yield overall. The authors suggest, in the long term, use of gypsum should result in higher yield potential due to increased nutrient level.

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Bees - Apiculture
Whidden, T. L. 1996. The fidelity of commercially reared colonies of Bombus impatiens Cresson (Hymenoptera: Apidae) to lowbush blueberry in southern New Brunswick. Can. Entomol. 128 (5) : 957-958.

To determine the relationships between commercial introduced bee colonies of Bombus impatiens Cresson, berry seeds and berry weight and maturity, the researchers introduced 72 B. impatiens hives into blueberry fields in Quebec. Fruit set rate, berry weight and maturity, and number of seed structures per berry were evaluated using plant and insect data. Whidden found that B. impatiens prefer to forage for nectar in a central location close to the nest. The density of bees affected the fruit set and number of large seeds in berries, which, in turn, positively influenced berry weight and maturity, and therefore, Whidden concludes B. impatiens colonies are a viable resource for wild blueberry pollination.

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Plant Insect Control - General
MacKenzie, K.; D. Hayman; and E. Reekie. 2004. The effect of pruning on blueberry stem gall wasp. Small Fruits Review 3. (3/4) :331-338. In Proceedings of the Ninth North American Blueberry Research and Extension Workers Conference, Halifax, NS, 18-21 Aug.2002.

Mow and burn pruning methods were evaluated in three commercial lowbush fields in NS as a means of reducing stem galls and resulting wasps. A first study tested mowing, which removes stems from the plants but does not destroy galls. A second study tested mowing, a combination of mowing and fall burning and a combination of mowing and spring burning. The researchers found mowing was ineffective in reducing the number of wasps, but burning, especially spring burning, reduced wasp survival.

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Collins, J.A.; and F.A. Drummond. 2004. Field-edge based management tactics for blueberry maggot in lowbush blueberry. Small Fruits Review 3. (3/4) : 285-293. In Proceedings of the Ninth North American Blueberry Research and Extension Workers Conference, Halifax, NS, 18-21 Aug.2002.

The authors attempt to determine the impact of wild blueberries containing blueberry maggot flies (BMF), Rhagoletis mendax, in wooded areas on adjacent commercial fields of wild blueberries and possible means of enhacing BMF management. Tests using fencing, pesticides applied to the field perimeter instead of the entire field, and insect bait were conducted in Maine over a three year period; BMF tended to infest the perimeter of blueberry fields and application of phosomet (Imidan) 70 WP along field perimeter reduced density of BMF. However, fencing did not significantly prevent infestation and the Nu-Lure Insect Bait results were inconclusive. Considering increasing governmental pressure to manage pests with minimum pesticide use and to use alternatives to pesticides, additional studies in the ecology and integrated pest management of commercial wild blueberry fields is needed.

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Jensen and Yarborough give an overview of the wild lowbush blueberry industry in Atlantic Canada, Quebec and Maine, weeds problematic for wild lowbush blueberry fields, changes in types of weeds, the impact of weed management on blueberry industry growth and weed management techniques, including the beneficial and damaging impact of the herbicide hexazonine. Traditional non-herbicide weed management gave way in the 1940s to herbicide use, including selective herbicide applicators. In the 1970s and 1980s, selective herbicides, most notably, hexazonine, were used on commercial lowbush blueberry fields. Hexazonine, while successfully controlling many weeds of lowbush blueberries, may potentially cause environmental issues and soil degradation. Nonchemical weed control and integrated weed management options are also discussed and the authors suggest prudent and selective use of specific practices for Canadian and American fields.

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Software was developed for wild blueberry producers and mechanical harvester owners to estimate annual operating and operation component costs on a per hour or per pound harvested basis. The authors discuss the software design, including the use of user defined variable data and various result output,s and cost calculations used to determine annual fixed and variable costs. The software runs in Microsoft Windows 31. and, at the time of publication, has been used in New Brunswick, PEI and Maine.

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