• Social Economics

The amount of Indonesian population still shows rapid increase every year. In 1971 the population amounted to 118 million people. Based on the two census taken in 1980 and 1990, the amount has increased respectively to 147 million and 164 million people. The population survey inter-census in 1994 recorded the figure reaching 195 million people.
 

This fact has been supported by the population growth rate which has been declining for years. In the period of 1971 to 1980 for instance, the growth rate per year was 2.32% and has been declining 1.77% per year during the period of 1985-1990 (Atatas. 1993). The Democracy Bureau of the Faculty of Economics of Indonesian University has projected that the growth rate of Indonesian population will continue to decline and reach 1.23% in the year 2000-2005 and even predicted to be .56% in the year 2020-2025 (Ananta, 1995).
 

Despite the continued decline of the population growth, with a significantly large number of population, the growth remains significantly large also. With the prediction of 1.23% growth in the future, beginning in the 21^st century, the Indonesian population will increase above 2 million per year.
 

One of the prime causes of population decline in Indonesia is the decrease of the fertility rate. International migration, which is considered to be one cause, has very little influence to the enormous number of population thirty years ago (1967-1970). The Total Fertility Rate (TFR) in Indonesia was 5.6 which means, in that period of years, every fertile women can give birth to 5 to 6 children. Population census in 1990 recorded that TFR for the period of 1986-1989 was 3.3 and the figure wend down significantly to 2.9 in 1994 based on the Health and Demography Survey (SDKI).
 

Several of the factors contributing to the decrease of the fertility rate include better birth control through family planning, the lateness of first marriages which is supported by improvement of education quality and economic conditions

including people's health. The average age for an Indonesian woman to get married has increased from 17.2 for age group of 45-49 and 19.2 for women aged 25-29. Generally, first marriages increased from 17.7 in 1991 to 18.1 in 1994 (SDKI), 1994). Meanwhile, the number of population receiving modern health services has shown an increase. This increase implies a drop in the maternal death rate as well as a drop in infant and child mortality rates. This is still considered to be high compared to other countries. Thus, the life expectancy in Indonesia has shown an increase. In 1990-1995 life expectancy for an Indonesian male has grown to 61.29 years and 65.36 for women.
 

6.2 Population Density

Indonesian population density in 1990 was 93 people/km². In the year 2020, the figure is projected to reach 132 people/ km² (Ananta, 1995)
 

Indonesia, as an archipelago country, has an extremely unbalanced distribution of population density if we refer to the area of inhabitants. Until 1990, Java island remained as an island with the highest density of population, which was 813 people / km². Other important islands have population densities as follows: Sumatera - 77 people / km²; Kalimantan 17 people / km²; Bali+NTT+NTB+ East Timor 115 people / km²; Sulawesi 66 people / km²; Maluki + Irian Jaya 7 people / km². It is generally concluded that the areas with dense populations are Java and the Western part of Indonesia. The islands in Eastern Indonesia, particularly Irian Jaya, have very small population density. For a couple of years in the future, this pattern of population density distribution will not change significantly. The economic crisis which happened at the end of the 20^th century has contributed more problems to the governments efforts of distributing people from the densely populated areas to the less densely populated ones.
 

6.3 Spatial Distribution of Population

As mentioned earlier, the Indonesian population distribution is extremely geographically imbalanced. Maluku and Irian for instance, with an area of 26% of the total land in Indonesia is inhabited by only 2% of the population whereas Java, with an area of 6.9% of the Indonesian land is inhabited by 60% of the population. In this very populated area land, for housing and for agriculture, has become scarce. In areas that are less densely populated, unproductive land can be found widely.
 

Efforts have been made to distribute the population more evenly through a transmigration program as well as encouraging the people to migrate spontaneously. Economic growth in particular areas in the past several decades has attracted more people to migrate to those areas. Riau and East Kalimantan province, with their rapid economic growth due to the natural oil industry has become a major destination of spontaneous migration.
 

In terms of emigration in particular, provinces with dense population in Java indeed has been a major destination of migrants from other parts of Indonesia for a long time. Of the 27 provinces in Indonesia, population census data in 1990 showed the highest migration rate from the province of Central Java, Special District of Jakarta, and East Java respectively, with figures of 22.08% of 18.92% and 12.33% of total immigration out from an area. This can balance the migration into these provinces which also remains high.
 

Migration rate to provinces in Java is mainly caused by the centralization of non- agricultural sector development. DKI Jakarta for instance, has been the center of investment and economic growth. Geographically, it can no longer accommodate the existing development. Hence, its various economic activities spread over to its suburban areas, some of which are part of West Java, which is the highest migration destination in Indonesia and made the migration rate netto risen highest currently. Apart from distribution of provincial area, Indonesian population area is also interesting to view based on the relationship of rural to urban. From year to year, an increasing trend can be observed on the additional proportion of people living in cities. In 1980, the population proportion who lived in new urban areas was 22.27%. Ten years later (1990) this rate had changed to 30.90% and continued to increase to 35.91% i 1995. Complete data on urban population percentage per province in Indonesia can be seen in Table 28 below.

Source: Center of Statistical Bureau, South Sulawesi
 
 
 

Out of DKI, Supas data (1995) gave figures that there were two provinces with urban population exceeding 50%. They were Special District of Jakarta (58.05%) and East Kalimantan (50.22%). D.I. Yogyakarta has apparently for the last 20 years shown an interesting increase in the urban population. For quite some time, this city has been popular as a student city which provides various choices of educational institutions and is supported by a relatively cheap cost of living. The tourism sector has also developed rapidly. Whereas in East Kalimantan province, the rapid economic growth is very much supported by the timber industry, natural liquid and gas resources as well as the gold mining industry, with plenty of job opportunities. These factors mentioned are responsible for attracting more people to these two areas.
 

• Gender Issues in Indonesia: General Overview

The inequality, attitudes and treatment towards women is seen in the public sphere. Most men do not show their willingness to take measures perform and operate governmental policies and national guidelines, strategies and plans for the achievement of equality in all aspects of society, including the promotion of literacy, education, training, nutrition, health and participation in key decision making, position and management of the environment, particularly in the informal sector. Most men do not take measures toward ensuring women's access to property rights as well as agricultural inputs and implements.
 

In the education system, it is a fact that there is no proper curricula and other educational materials with a view to promoting the dissemination of knowledge to both men and women. This could be used as a tool to help develop their nation and evaluation of women's roles through training institutions in collaboration with non-government organizations.
 

Women and Work

Workforce

Emancipation of women is evident in various areas of life although, since the beginning of the second long-term development plan (PJP II), equal partnerships between men and women are a continuing struggle in the effort to increase women's roles in development. The problem now is whether persons have equal status in the workplace. While it is clear that many women have entered the areas of the work world which have generally been male-dominated (for example as airplane pilots or working in mechanical repair workshops), can it be said that these women have reached equality with men?
 

From 1990 to 1996, the total proportion of women who are employed is still much lower than that of men (almost half), although there is an increase each year. Table 26 shows that women in the workforce in 1980 was 17.2 million, while men in the workforce reached 35 million. In 1996 the number of women in the workforce reached 34.8 million and the number of men 55.3 million.
 
 

Source: 1. Compiled from CBS, (1983, page: 169-177)

2. Compiled from CBS, (1983, page: 259-267)

3. Compiled from National Labor Force Survey (Sakernas), 1996.
 

It should be noted that, of the rise in the total number of women workers from year to year is much higher than the rate of the rise among men, both in urban and rural areas. However, the rise in the total number of women workers in urban areas was much faster than in rural areas. This, of course, must be viewed in the context of the relatively high rate of growth of the urban population.
 

Labor Force Participation Rate

One of the indicators showing the size of active participation of women in economical life is the level of labor force participation rate (TPAK) of women. In 1980, this was less than half that for men (68% compared to 32.4% - see Table B6.2), and in 1996 the level for women was more than half that for men (72% compared to 45%).
 

As with the total numbers of women in the labor force, the level of workforce participation for women also increases much faster year by year than men's both in urban and rural areas. This shows that at this time of rapid development, there is a definite trend for women to increase their active participation in economical life.
 
 

Source: 1. Compiled from CBS, (1983, page: 169-177)

2. Compiled from CBS, (1983, page: 259-267)

3. Compiled from National Labor Force Survey (Sakernas), 1996.
 

The competition to enter the job market increased among people of higher education levels. This is evidenced by the existence of an increasing unemployment rate among those with higher education, in both urban and rural areas (Table 28).

Source: 1. Compiled from CBS, (1983, page: 169-177)

2. Compiled from CBS, (1983, page: 259-267)

3. Compiled from National Labor Force Survey (Sakernas), 1996.
 

Based on the National Labor-force Survey (Sakernas) in 1996, the level of educated unemployment in Indonesia had almost reached 12%. It should be noted that the number of women who are counted among the educated unemployed is much higher than the number of men (almost 3 times as many). The rise in the proportion of educated women who are unemployed has risen much faster than men between 1990 to 1996 (see Table 29).
 
 

 
 
 

Level of Education and Sex	1980	1990	1996
<Middle School Women Men W + M	2.0  11 1.4	2.3  1.6 1.8	2.2  1.8 2.0
Middle School Women Men W + M	4.5  2.5 2.8	7.7  4.2 5.1	10.3  5.3 6.8
High School  Women Men W + M	5.7  3.6 4.1	13.5  7.6 5.1	19.1  10.8 13.5
> High School Women Men W + M	3.8  1.3 1.8	10.2  5.2 6.7	19.1  7.9 11.8

Source: 1. Compiled from CBS, (1983, page: 196-204)

2. Compiled from CBS, (1983, page: 286-294)

3. Compiled from (Sakernas), 1996.
 

Work Status and Type

In 1980, the largest proportion of women worked as "self-employed" was around 48% (Table B6.5). In 1996 there was a slight change in women's status as workers, but still showing a trend towards more women being self-employed. Although the percentage of women who are "family workers" or unpaid workers, is still fairly high, it seems that there has been significant improvement in this area because more and more women are economically active and receive their own wages. Meanwhile, the percentage of workers who are employers of full-time workers, or who are office workers, laborers or "family workers" consistently declines.
 

Table 30 shows the increasing percentage of women who work as professionals and as managers. This indicates significant status compared with service positions or laborers. In 1980, about 3.3% of employed women worked as professionals. This is higher than the percentage of men (2.8%). Meanwhile, in 1996, this number has grown to 4%, also higher than the percentage of men (3%).
 
 

Source: 1. Compiled from CBS, (1983, page: 196-204)

2. Compiled from CBS, (1983, page: 286-294)

3. Compiled from (Sakernas), 1996.
 
 

 
 
 

Level of Education and Sex	1980	1990	1996
Professional Women Men W + M	3.3  2.8 3.0	4.5  3.3 3.7	4.3  3.1 3.6
Managerial Women Men W + M	0.1  0.1 0.1	0.1  0.3 0.2	0.1  0.3 0.2
Administration, Sales and Service Women Men W + M	27.1  17.7 20.8	29.4  20.3 23.5	33.6  23.5 27.3
Farming, Labor, etc. Women Men W + M	69.5  79.4 76.1	66.0  76.1 72.6	62.0  7301 68.9

Source: 1. Compiled from CBS, (1983, page: 205-213)

2. Compiled from CBS, (1983, page: 295-303)

3. Compiled from (Sakernas), 1996.
 

Labor Force by Sectors

The rise of women's roles in the workplace is also evident by the rising proportion of women in the formal sector although there are still wide gaps between men and women, especially in the rural areas. The results of the 1996 National Labor-force Survey (Sakernas) shows that about 23% of women work in the formal sector, an increase 20% in 1980. In the urban areas, women's participation in the formal sector has fallen while men's has grown. This is related to the domination of the agricultural sector in the rural areas (Table 32).
 
 

Source: 1. Compiled from CBS, (1983, page:214-221)

2. Compiled from CBS, (1983, page:304-311)

3. Compiled from (Sakernas), 1996.

Source: 1. Compiled from CBS, (1983, page: 214-222))

2. Compiled from CBS, (1983, page: 304-312)

3. Compiled from (Sakernas), 1996.
 
 
 

As already known, since 1971 the sector structure of the workforce has shifted significantly from predominated primary sectors to the secondary and tertiary sectors. As shown in Table B6.8, the percentage of the population who work in the primary sector has fallen since 1980, with in the secondary and tertiary sectors, there have been consistent increases, for both men and women. In the secondary sector, the percentage of the male population who work is higher than their female counterpart (20% vs 16%). This show that in this sector, which includes utilities (electric, gas and water), construction and mining, there is still more domination by men. Meanwhile, the primary (farming) and tertiary (services, etc.) sectors absorb more women than men because these sectors do not require higher education.
 

Work Hours

Keeping in mind that the primary role for women is still seen as housework, women do not have as much time available for work as men. Table B6.9 shows that women's working hours are shorter than men's. The percentage of women who work more than 35 hours a week is smaller than for men.
 

On average, women's working hours have not increased in the past 10 years. This is shown in the table where the average number of working hours for women is seen to be around 41 hours per week in 1986. The results of the 1996 Sakernas shows that, on average, rural women's work hours are shorter than urban women's (37 vs 45 per week). In urban areas, on average, women's work hours are almost the same as mens (45 hours vs 46 hours per week).
 
 

Source: Compiled from Sakernas ,1986, 1990, 1996

Note: * Temporarily not working
 

• Health and Nutrition

This economic crisis increases the price of foodstuff and medicine, and also increases unemployment. All of this impacts food availability which in turn impacts family health and nutrution. This particularly effects babies, children, pregnant and lactating mothers, which is the source of future human resources. It is time to find an alternative to overcome this situation and empower the community to provide food, improved health facilities, health care insurance and human development.
 

The concept of human development has assumed center stage in a number of world summits and global references. The Rio Declaration (1992) proclaimed that all human beings are the center of concern for sustainable development, they are entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature. It emphasized that the developmental and future generations must be met equitably. The Rio declaration called for establishing a new and equitable global partnership through cooperation, and proposed to work towards global agreements on sustainable development.
 

Main Nutrition Problems in Indonesia
 

• Protein and Energy Malnutrition (PEM)

Figure 8 shows the trend of both total PEM and MS-PEM in these three years. Reduction of total PEM from 1989 to 1995 could be quantified with 4.4% per year. Similar analysis showed that reduction in the prevalence of MS-PEM in Repelita VI (at lease 5%) needs great attention with specific interventions.
 

• Iodine Deficiency Disorders (IDD)

Recently , mapping surveys have been conducted in 6 provinces (West Java and Central Java, Di Yogyakarta, East Nusa Tenggara, Maluku and Irian Jaya). The results showed that two provinces, Maluku and East Nusa Tenggara, were severe IDD areas with TGR (total goiter rate) greater than 33% and one province, Irian Jaya was a milk IDD area. The other provinces had prevalence less than 1%. In fact, two provinces (Central Java and West Java) were non-IDD areas (less than 5%). This means that significant reductions have been seen in some provinces but some provinces showed an increase (Arhya kdd. 1996; Djumadias dkk 1996a and 1996b; Pinantih dkk. 1996; Suharjo dkk. 1996; and Thaha dkk, 1996).
 
 

• Nutritional Anemia

Source: BPS 1995

• Vitamin A Deficiency (VAD)

• Food Consumption Problem .⁽¹⁾

Source: Kodyat, 1997

Source: BPS 1990: CBS 1994
 
 

Source: CBS 1994
 
 

However, the availability of macro nutrient differs significantly in income groups. As seen in table 23, energy consumption was the lowest income (1.392 kcal/day). In other words, families with incomes below Rp. 8,000, consume only 65% of energy recommended. Energy consumption relates directly with income. It was also seen that people with an income over Rp. 150,000 consumed more than the recommended energy (108%). Furthermore, disparity of protein and fat consumption income groups was much bigger. Compared to the recommendation, percentages of proein and energy from fat in groups below Rp. 8,000 /month were 196% and 35% respectively for protein and energy from fat (CBS, 1994).

Source: Center of Statistical Bureau, South Sulawesi 1996

MS-PEM: Moderate to severe PEM Severe: < 60% W/A WHO-NCHS

Moderate: 60-69.9% W/A WHO-NCHS Good: 80-89% W/A WHO-NCHS

Mild: 70-79.9% W/A WHO-NCHS Over: >120% W/A WHO-NCHS
 

Besides differences between income groups and macro nutrient consumption, the discrepancy of consumption in the same income group was also seen in those who have income fluctuations. Income fluctuations co-related linerarly with food expenditure. This association was highly seen in families below poor levels (Thaha, 1995).
 

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